Navigation: Flight Planning

Though a lot of training may entail flying in the pattern or conducting maneuvers in a practice area, the reason most of us learn to fly is to go from Point A to Point B.  While the shortest distance between 2 points may be a straight line, it is rarely completely feasible to do so in a small GA aircraft.  First, some

Terms

Deviation - Magnetic anomaly that affects the compass
True Course - Course over ground relative to True North
Magnetic Course - True course corrected for Magnetic Variation
True Heading - True Course corrected for wind
Magnetic Heading - Magnetic Course corrected for wind
Compass Heading - magnetic heading corrected for deviation
Variation - Angular difference between True North and Magnetic North

Standard Temp. - 15ºC
Standard Pressure - 29.92"


Pressure Altitude -  Altitude shown when altimeter is set to 29.92
Density Altitude - Pressure Altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature


True Airspeed - Actual speed relative to surrounding air (calibrated airspeed corrected for density altitude)
Groundspeed - Actual speed of the airplane relative to the ground




Charts
There are 3 aeronautical charts available for VFR pilots - Sectional, Terminal, and World Aeronautical.
Most FBOs and flight schools have the local sectional and terminal areas available.  If you need something outside the immediate area, you can check http://www.naco.faa.gov for charts available.

Sectional Charts - are revised semi-annually and contain most information that is needed by a pilot.
Terminal Charts - contain the same symbology as sectional charts, but at a larger scale, so it is easier to read.  These cover heavily congested Class Bravo terminal areas.  These also contain transition routes through the Class Bravo if applicable.
World Aeronautical Charts - also maintain the same symbology, but at a smaller scale, so there may be less information present.  These are revised annually.

An exhaustive list of chart symbols and their meanings would take up the better part of a day, so I will mention the key points of interest:

Airspace/Obstructions
Understand the entry rules, equipment requirements, visibility, and cloud distance requirements for transitioning through different airspace.

Be able to identify how different airspace is depicted on charts and what altitudes are its limits.

There is also special-use airspace for things such as jet training or military operations.  Some of these may be transitioned, such as MOAs or Alert Areas but could pose a hazard.  Others like Restricted or Prohibited areas are forbidden.

Let's say we want to fly from Long Beach to Palm Springs at 5,500 ft.  A straight line between those two points looks like the above graphic.  In addition to the LAX Class B airspace and John Wayne Class C in the immediate vicinity of departure, there is a hazard that is not even shown on the chart.

A TFR, or Temporary Flight Restriction is an area of restricted airspace, which could exist for any reason from a baseball game to the President's arrival on Air Force One.  In this case, one exists around Disneyland.  How do we know?  When conducting your preflight weather briefing, this will be indicated in the NOTAMS section.

Our flight path and altitude also takes us just at the cusp of the limits of Class C over March AB, a military base.  After that we find unfavorable topography in the San Jacinto Wilderness Area.  Even if we are able to clear it somehow, mountains produce up and down drafts and hazardous flying conditions as well as turbulence.

A better route would be a north/east departure toward the 91/605, then toward the Banning Pass, being sure not to bust into Class B or C at any time.

Time Zones
Seemingly benign, this can be an important part of flight planning.  Flying east the sun will set earlier than anticipated, and so forth.  Also remember that UTC or Zulu Time based in Greenwich, England is the basis for all weather briefing times and forecasts.  Do not confuse this with local time.

Variation

When you come to plotting a course, the charts are in disagreement with your actual compass heading.  These lines are depicted in magenta on a chart.  Add if West, Subtract if East.  What you measure on charts is true course, but this is not the heading you fly.  There are a few corrections you must make.

1) Add or Subtract Variation to get Magnetic Course


2) Adjust for Wind / Correction Angle to get Magnetic Heading (Use E-6B or other Flight Computer)


3) Consult aircraft's actual magnetic compass card for deviation errors (usual minimal) to get Compass Heading.  This is the heading you actually fly in the airplane.

So ultimately, TC ± WCA = TH ± V = MH ± D = CH

Weather
The weather may be the biggest contributing factor to a Go/No Go decision.  Know how to get a weather briefing, interpret its meanings, and be able to make a competent decision on your flight.  Perhaps changing the route may alleviate weather concerns.  But if in doubt, don't go.


A/FD
In addition to getting your standard briefing, it is good to check the Airport/Facility Directory.  Perhaps your planned airport closes at 6:00pm and doesn't have self-serve gas.  Maybe one of the runways is closed indefinitely.  Perhaps there is a note indicating a large number of birds commonly seen at the end of the runway.  The A/FD is published more frequently than the charts, but may still not contain all pertinent information.

If anything has changed since the publishing of the A/FD, it can be found in the NOTAMS.

Calculations
Most common calculations such as Density Altitude and Groundspeed are actually explained on the E-6B itself, so no need to memorize formulas.  However, sometimes basic math is just as easy as pulling out the flight computer.

Time = Distance / Ground Speed
Distance = Ground Speed x Time
Ground Speed = Distance / Time

Fuel Consumption is of obvious importance to flight planning.  While the POH may give estimated fuel burns at certain lean amounts, be more conservative.  The POH, after all, gives you the best possible scenario, not the one that will actually happen.

FAR 91.151 requires that you have enough fuel to fly at least to your first point of landing with . . .
30 min. fuel reserve if during day
45 min. fuel reserve if during night

It is a good idea to have an alternate airport planned to divert to in case of bad weather, in-flight emergency, or urgent need to use a bathroom.

Pilotage vs. Dead Reckoning
Dead Reckoning is the use of Time/Speed/Distance and directional computations to navigate.  It can be useful especially on unfamiliar routes as you are monitoring checkpoints and progress in getting to them.  While not precise, it helps approximate location.

Pilotage is navigating solely by looking out the window and comparing that to a chart.  Depending on locale, it may be difficult to identify checkpoints, and is therefore less reliable.  It is better suited for flights that the pilot has already conducted and is comfortable doing.

Lost Procedures
It can happen to anyone.  You may have missed a checkpoint or simply want to verify that you are where you think you are.  You may use two VORs to triangulate your position.  Choose two VORs close to where you think you are and center the needles with a FROM indication.  Plot a line using those angles FROM the stations.  Where they cross is approximately where you are.

If you're really lost, contact a nearby controller frequency.  Politely tell them the situation and where you think you may be.  If nobody is answering, and the situation turns into an emergency, contact 121.5 and squawk 7700.

Filing a Flight Plan

Flight plans are used for Search-and-Rescue operations if your plane does not arrive at its intended destination within 30 mins of its ETA.  They may be filed in the air by radio by contacting FSS, but its easier to file online through DUATS or some other source.  It is held up to one hour after proposed departure time.  Do NOT forget to close it upon arrival or the authorities will come looking for you.